Онлайн книга
Примечания книги
1
“USAF Aircraft Accidents, February 1950,” Accident-Report.com, http://www.accident-report.com/Yearly/1950/5002.html.
2
Francis E. Randall et al., Human Body Size in Military Aircraft and Personal Equipment (Army Air Forces Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Ohio, 1946), 5.
3
United States Air Force, Anthropometry of Flying Personnel by H. T. Hertzberg et al., WADC — TR–52–321 (Dayton: Wright-Patterson AFB, 1954).
4
Gilbert S. Daniels, interviewed by Todd Rose, May 14, 2014.
5
Обзор данного подхода к типированию см. в работе W. H. Sheldon et al., Atlas of Man (New York: Gramercy Publishing Company, 1954).
6
Earnest Albert Hooton, Crime and the Man (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1939), 130.
7
Gilbert S. Daniels, “A Study of Hand Form in 250 Harvard Men” (неопубликованные тезисы к дополнительному курсу на факультете антропологии, Harvard University, 1948).
8
Daniels, interview.
9
Gilbert S. Daniels, The “Average Man”? TN-WCRD–53–7 (Dayton: Wright-Patterson AFB, Air Force Aerospace Medical Research Lab, 1952).
10
Daniels, The “Average Man”?, 3.
11
Josephine Robertson, “Are You Norma, Typical Woman? Search to Reward Ohio Winners,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 9, 1945.
12
Anna G. Creadick, Perfectly Average: The Pursuit of Normality in Postwar America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010). Примечание: ознакомиться со скульптурами можно в библиотеке Harvard Countway Library; “CLINIC: But Am I Normal?” Remedia, November 5, 2012, http://remedianetwork.net/2012/11/05/clinic-but-am-i-normal/; Harry L. Shapiro, “A Portrait of the American People,” Natural History 54 (1945): 248, 252.
13
Dahlia S. Cambers, “The Law of Averages 1: Normman and Norma,” Cabinet, Issue 15, Fall 2004, http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/15/cambers.php; and Creadick, Perfectly Average.
14
Bruno Gebhard, “The Birth Models: R. L. Dickinson’s Monument,” Journal of Social Hygiene 37 (April 1951), 169–174.
15
Gebhard, “The Birth Models.”
16
Josephine Robertson, “High Schools Show Norma New Way to Physical Fitness,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 18, 1945, A1.
17
Josephine Robertson, “Are You Norma, Typical Woman? Search to Reward Ohio Winners,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 9, 1945, A8; Josephine Robertson, “Norma Is Appealing Model in Opinion of City’s Artists,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 15, 1945, A1; Josephine Robertson, “Norma Wants Her Posture to Be Perfect,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 13, 1945, A1; Josephine Robertson, “High Schools Show Norma New Way to Physical Fitness,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 18, 1945, A1; Josephine Robertson, “Dr. Clausen Finds Norma Devout, but Still Glamorous,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 24, 1945, A3; “The shape we’re in.” TIME, June 18, 1945; Creadick, Perfectly Average, 31–35.
18
Josephine Robertson, “Theater Cashier, 23, Wins Title of Norma, Besting 3,863 Entries,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 23, 1945, A1.
19
Robertson, “Theater Cashier,” A1.
20
Robertson, “Theater Cashier,” A1.
21
Daniels, The “Average Man”?, 1.
22
Daniels, The “Average Man”?
23
Daniels, interview.
24
Kenneth W. Kennedy, International anthropometric variability and its effects on aircraft cockpit design. No. AMRL-TR-72-45. (Медицинская исследовательская лаборатория ВВС, Wright-Patterson AFB OH, 1976.); пример использования стандартов дизайна см. у Douglas Aircraft Company, El Segundo, California, Service Information Summary, Sept. — Oct., 1959.
25
E. C. Gifford, Compilation of Anthropometric Measures of US Navy Pilots, NAMC-ACEL–437 (Philadelphia: U.S. Department of the Navy, Air Crew Equipment Laboratory, 1960).
26
L. Todd Rose et al., “The Science of the Individual,” Mind, Brain, and Education 7, no. 3 (2013): 152–158. See also James T. Lamiell, Beyond Individual and Group Differences: Human Individuality, Scientific Psychology, and William Stern’s Critical Personalism (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2003).
27
“Miasma Theory,” Wikipedia, June 27, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory.
28
“Infectious Disease Timeline: Louis Pasteur and the Germ Theory of Disease,” ABPI, http://www.abpischools.org.uk/topic/infectiousdiseases-timeline/4/0.
29
Michael B. Miller et al., “Extensive Individual Differences in Brain Activations Associated with Episodic Retrieval Are Reliable Over Time,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14, no. 8 (2002): 1200–1214.
30
K. J. Friston et al., “How Many Subjects Constitute a Study?” Neuroimage 10 (1999): 1–5.
31
Michael Miller, interviewed by Todd Rose, September 23, 2014.
32
Miller, interview.
33
L. Cahill et al., “Amygdala Activity at Encoding Correlated with Long-Term, Free Recall of Emotional Information,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 93 (1996): 8016–8021; I. Klein et al., “Transient Activity in the Human Calcarine Cortex During Visual-Mental Imagery: An Event-Related fMRI Study,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (2000): 15–23; S. M. Kosslyn et al., “Individual Differences in Cerebral Blood Flow in Area 17 Predict the Time to Evaluate Visualized Letters,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8 (1996): 78–82; D. McGonigle et al., “Variability in fMRI: An Examination of Intersession Differences,” Neuroimage 11 (2000): 708–734; S. Mueller et al., “Individual Variability in Functional Connectivity Architecture of the Human Brain,” Neuron 77, no. 3 (2013): 586–595; L. Nyberg et al., “PET Studies of Encoding and Retrieval: The HERA model,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 3 (1996): 135–148; C. A. Seger et al., “Hemispheric Asymmetries and Individual Differences in Visual Concept Learning as Measured by Functional MRI,” Neuropsychologia 38 (2000): 1316–1324; J. D. Watson et al., “Area V5 of the Human Brain: Evidence from a Combined Study Using Positron Emission Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Cerebral Cortex 3 (1993): 79–94. Следует учесть, что индивидуальность прослеживается даже в гемодинамической реакции. См. G. K. Aguirre et al., “The Variability of Human, BOLD Hemodynamic Responses,” Neuroimage 8 (1998): 360–369.
34
Miller, interview, 2014.
35
Miller, interview, 2014.
36
Полное имя ученого Ламберт Адольф Жак Кетле. Сведения о биографии и взглядах см. в работах Alain Desrosiéres, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), chap. 3; K. P. Donnelly, Adolphe Quetelet, Social Physics and the Average Men of Science, 1796–1874 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2015); Gerd Gigerenzer et al., The Empire of Chance: How Probability Changed Science and Everyday Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Ian Hacking, The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975); Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); T. M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Stephen M. Stigler, The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); Stephen M. Stigler, Statistics on the Table: The History of Statistical Concepts and Methods (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002).
37
Stigler, History of Statistics, 162.
38
Porter, Rise of Statistical Thinking, 47.
39
Porter, Rise of Statistical Thinking, 47–48.
40
T. M. Porter, “The Mathematics of Society: Variation and Error in Quetelet’s Statistics,” British Journal for the History of Science 18, no. 1 (1985): 51–69, citing Quetelet, “Memoire sur les lois des naissances et de la mortalite a Bruxelles,” NMB 3 (1826): 493–512.
41
Porter, Rise of Statistical Thinking, 104.
42
I. Hacking, “Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers,” Humanities in Society 5 (1982): 279–295.
43
C. Camic and Y. Xie, “The Statistical Turn in American Social Science: Columbia University, 1890 to 1915,” American Sociological Review 59, no. 5 (1994): 773–805; and I. Hacking, “Nineteenth Century Cracks in the Concept of Determinism,” Journal of the History of Ideas 44, no. 3 (1983): 455–475.
44
Porter, Rise of Statistical Thinking, 95.
45
S. Stahl, “The Evolution of the Normal Distribution,” Mathematics Magazine 79 (2006): 96–113.
46
O. B. Sheynin, “On the Mathematical Treatment of Astronomical Observations,” Archives for the History of Exact Sciences 11, no. 2/3 (1973): 97–126.
47
Adolphe Quetelet, “Sur l’appréciation des documents statistiques, et en particulier sur l’application des moyens,” Bulletin de la Commission Centrale de lé Statistique (of Belgium) 2 (1844): 258; A. Quetelet, Lettres a S. A. R. Le Duc Rйgnant de Saxe Cobourg et Gotha, sur la théorie des probabilités, appliquée aux sciences morales et politique (Brussels: Hayez, 1846), letters 19–21. Источник исходных данных: Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal 13 (1817): 260–264.
48
T. Simpson, “A Letter to the Right Honourable George Macclesfield, President of the Royal Society, on the Advantage of Taking the Mean, of a Number of Observations, in Practical Astronomy,” Philosophical Transactions 49 (1756): 82–93.
49
Stahl, “Evolution of the Normal Distribution,” 96–113; and Camic and Xie, “Statistical Turn,” 773–805.
50
Quetelet, Lettres, Letters 19–21.
51
Quetelet, Lettres, Letter 20.
52
Quetelet, Lettres, Letters 90–93.
53
Adolphe Quetelet, Sur l’homme et le développement de ses facultés, ou Essai de physique sociale (Paris: Bachelier, 1835); trans. A Treatise on Man and the Development of his Faculties (Edinburgh: William and Robert Chambers, 1842), chap. 1. В новой редакции книга стала называется Physique sociale ou essai sur le développement des facultés de l’homme (Brussels: C. Muquardt, 1869).
54
Stigler, History of Statistics, 171; quoting passage at page 276 of Quetelet, Sur L’homme (1835).
55
Quetelet, Treatise, 99.
56
Quetelet, Treatise, 276.
57
Hacking, “Nineteenth Century Cracks,” 455–475; Kaat Louckx and Raf Vanderstraeten, “State-istics and Statistics, 532; N. Rose, “Governing by Numbers: Figuring Out Democracy,” Accounting 16, no. 7 (1991): 673–692; and “Quetelet, Adolphe.” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968; Encyclopedia.com. (August 10, 2015). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045001026.html.
58
John S. Haller, “Civil War Anthropometry: The Making of a Racial Ideology,” Civil War History 16, no. 4 (1970): 309–324. The original report references Quetelet: J. H. Baxter, Statistics, Medical and Anthropological, of the Provost Marshal-General’s Bureau, Derived from Records of the Examination for Military Service in the Armies of the United States During the Late War of the Rebellion, of Over a Million Recruits, Drafted Men, Substitutes, and Enrolled Men (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1875), 17–19, 36, 43, 52. Quetelet uses this result as proof of types (Quetelet, Anthropometrie [Brussels: C. Muquardt, 1871], 16); Quetelet, “Sur les proportions de la race noire,” Bulletin de l’acadimie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Belgique 21, no. 1 (1854): 96–100.
59
Porter, “Mathematics of society,” 51–69.
60
A. Quetelet, Du systeme et des lois qui social régissent him (Paris: Guillaumin, 1848), 88–107, 345–346.
61
Mervyn Stone, “The Owl and the Nightingale: The Quetelet/Nightingale Nexus,” Chance 24, no. 4 (2011): 30–34; Piers Beirne, Inventing Criminology (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), 65; Wilhelm Wundt, Theorie Der Sinneswahrnehmung (Leipzig: Winter’sche, 1862), xxv; J. C. Maxwell, “Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases,” Philosophical Magazine 19 (1860): 19–32. Reprinted in The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1890; New York: Dover, 1952, and Courier Corporation, 2013).
62
Сведения о биографии и взглядах Гальтона см. в работах F. Galton, Memories of My Life (London: Methuen, 1908); K. Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton (London: Cambridge, University Press, 1914); D. W. Forrest, Francis Galton: The Life and Work of a Victorian Genius (New York: Taplinger, 1974); and R. E. Fancher, “The Measurement of Mind: Francis Galton and the Psychology of Individual Differences,” in Pioneers of Psychology (New York: Norton, 1979), 250–294.
63
Jeffrey Auerbach, The Great Exhibition of 1851 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 122–123.
64
Gerald Sweeney, “Fighting for the Good Cause,” American Philosophical Society 91, no. 2 (2001): i–136.
65
Sweeney, “Fighting for the Good Cause.” Сведения об изменениях в избирательном праве см. у Joseph Hendershot Park, The English Reform Bill of 1867 (New York: Columbia University, 1920).
66
Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (New York: Horizon Press, 1869), 26. См. приложение, в котором содержится обсуждение некоторых математических аспектов понятия «средний человек».
67
Sweeney, “Fighting for the Good Cause,” 35–49.
68
Francis Galton, “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims,” American Journal of Sociology 10, no. 1 (1904): 1–25.
69
Michael Bulmer, Francis Galton (Baltimore: JHU Press, 2004), 175.
70
Francis Galton, “Statistics by Intercomparison, with Remarks on the Law of Frequency of Error,” Philosophical Magazine 49 (1875): 33–46.
71
Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan, 1883), 35–36.
72
Francis Galton, Essays in Eugenics (London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 66.
73
Piers Beirne, “Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology,” American Journal of Sociology 92, no. 5 (1987): 1140–69; более обширное освещение темы см. в работе Porter, Rise of Statistical Thinking.
74
Quetelet, Sur l’homme, 12.
75
K. Pearson, “The Spirit of Biometrika,” Biometrika 1, no. 1 (1901): 3–6.
76
William Cyples, “Morality of the Doctrine of Averages,” Cornhill Magazine (1864): 218–224.
77
Claude Bernard, Principes de médecine expérimentale, L. Delhoume, ed. (Paris, 1947), 67, quoted in T. M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 160.
78
Claude Bernard, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (New York: Dover, 1865; 1957), 138.
79
Joseph Carroll, “Americans Satisfied with Number of Friends, Closeness of Friendships,” Gallup.com, March 5, 2004, http://www.gallup.com/poll/10891/americans-satisfied-number-friends-closeness-friendships.aspx; “Average Woman Will Kiss 15 Men and Be Heartbroken Twice Before Meeting ‘The One’, Study Reveals,” The Telegraph, January 1, 2014, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/howaboutthat/10545810/Average-woman-will-kiss-15-men-and-be-heartbroken-twice-before-meeting-The-One-study-reveals.html; “Finances Causing Rifts for American Couples,” AICPA, May 4, 2012, http://www.aicpa.org/press/pressreleases/2012/pages/finances-causing-rifts-for-american-couples.aspx.
80
J. Rifkin, Time Wars: The Primary Conflict in Human History (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1987), 106.
81
Биографию Тейлора см. в работе Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (Cambridge: MIT Press Books, 2005).
82
Charles Hirschman and Elizabeth Mogford, “Immigration and the American Industrial Revolution from 1880 to 1920,” Social Science Research 38, no. 1 (2009): 897–920.
83
Kanigel, One Best Way, 188.
84
Eric L. Davin, Crucible of Freedom: Workers’ Democracy in the Industrial Heartland, 1914–1960 (New York: Lexington Books, 2012), 39; Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), 3; and J. Mokyr, “The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914,” August 1998, http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/castronovo.pdf.
85
Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1911), 5–6.
86
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, 7.
87
Taylor Society, Scientific Management in American Industry (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1929), 28.
88
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, 83.
89
Kanigel, One Best Way, 215.
90
Hearings Before Special Committee of the House of Representatives to Investigate the Taylor and Other Systems of Shop Management Under Authority of House Resolution 90, no. III, 1377–1508. Reprinted in Scientific Management, Frederick Winslow Taylor (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1972), 107–111.
91
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, 25.
92
Frederick W. Taylor, “Why the Race Is Not Always to the Swift,” American Magazine 85, no. 4 (1918): 42–44.
93
Maarten Derksen, “Turning Men into Machines? Scientific Management, Industrial Psychology, and the Human Factor,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 50, no. 2 (2014): 148–165.
94
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, 36.
95
Kanigel, One Best Way, 204.
96
Из лекции от 4 июня 1906 года (цитируется по Kanigel, One Best Way, 169).
97
Frederick W. Taylor, “Not for the Genius — But for the Average Man: A Personal Message,” American Magazine 85, no. 3 (1918): 16–18.
98
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management.
99
Издана на русском языке: Тейлор Ф. Принципы научного менеджмента. М.: Контроллинг, 11.
100
Thomas K. McCraw, Creating Modern Capitalism: How Entrepreneurs, Companies, and Countries Triumphed in Three Industrial Revolutions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 338; http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/10/12/not-so-fast; and Peter Davis, Managing the Cooperative Difference: A Survey of the Application of Modern Management Practices in the Cooperative Context (Geneva: International Labour Organization, 1999), 47.
101
Kanigel, One Best Way, 482.
102
Kanigel, One Best Way, 11.
103
Nikolai Lenin, The Soviets at Work (New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1919). Kanigel, One Best Way, 524.
104
Kanigel, One Best Way, 8.
105
M. Freeman, “Scientific Management: 100 Years Old; Poised for the Next Century,” SAM Advanced Management Journal 61, no. 2 (1996): 35.
106
Richard J. Murnane and Stephen Hoffman, “Graduations on the Rise,” EducationNext, http://educationnext.org/graduations-on-the-rise/; and “Education,” PBS.com, http://www.pbs.org/fmc/book/3education1.htm.
107
Charles W. Eliot, Educational Reform: Essays and Addresses (New York: Century Co., 1901).
108
Обзор дискуссии в целом и взглядов тейлористов в частности см. в Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
109
Frederick T. Gates, “The Country School of To-Morrow,” Occasional Papers 1 (1913): 6–10.
110
John Taylor Gatto, The Underground History of American Education (Odysseus Group, 2001), 222.
111
H. L. Mencken, “The Little Red Schoolhouse,” American Mercury, April 1924, 504.
112
Биографию Торндайка см. в работе Geraldine M. Joncich, The Sane Positivist: A Biography of Edward L. Thorndike (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1968).
113
S. Tomlinson, “Edward Lee Thorndike and John Dewey on the Science of Education,” Oxford Review of Education 23, no. 3 (1997): 365–383.
114
Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency, 198.
115
Edward Thorndike, Educational Psychology: Mental Work and Fatigue and Individual Differences and Their Causes (New York: Columbia University, 1921), 236. Примечание: Торндайк, как и Гальтон, был одержим идеей ранжирования людей. В последней своей книге Human Nature and the Social Order (1940) Торндайк предлагает систему моральной оценки, которая позволила бы обществу разделить граждан на лучших и худших. Средний человек получал бы оценку в 100 баллов, в то время как «Ньютон, Пастер, Дарвин, Данте, Мильтон, Бах, Бетховен, Леонардо да Винчи и Рембрандт получили бы 2000, а идиот в вегетативном состоянии — 1 балл». В системе морального ранжирования Торндайка одомашненное животное получит более высокую оценку, нежели человек-идиот.
116
Joncich, The Sane Positivist, 21–22.
117
Edward Thorndike, Individuality (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911).). См. также о его подходе к тестированию: Edward Thorndike, An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements (New York: Science Press, 1913).
118
Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency, chap. 5.
119
Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency, chap. 5.
120
Robert J. Marzano, “The Two Purposes of Teacher Evaluation,” Educational Leadership 70, no. 3 (2012): 14–19, http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov12/vol70/num03/The-Two-Purposes-of-Teacher-Evaluation.aspx; “Education Rankings,” U.S. News and World Report, http://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/best-education; “PISA 2012 Results,” OECD, http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm.
121
Robert J. Murnane and Stephen Hoffman, “Graduations on the Rise,” http://educationnext.org/graduations-on-the-rise/; “2015 Building a Grad Nation Report,” Grad Nation, http://gradnation.org/report/2015-building-grad-nation-report.
122
Seth Godin, We Are All Weird (The Domino Project, 2011).
123
Представители бихевиоризма — направления в психологии, изучающего поведение человека и способы влияния на поведение. Прим. ред.
124
Peter Molenaar, interviewed by Todd Rose, August 18, 2014.
125
Molenaar, interview, 2014.
126
Frederic M. Lord and Melvin R. Novick, Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1968).
127
J. B. Kline, “Classical Test Theory: Assumptions, Equations, Limitations, and Item Analyses,” in Psychological Testing (Calgary: University of Calgary, 2005), 91–106.
128
Lord and Novick, Statistical Theories, 27–28.
129
Lord and Novick, Statistical Theories, 29–32.
130
Lord and Novick, Statistical Theories, 32–35.
131
Историю и обзор эргодической теории см. в работе Andre R. Cunha, “Understanding the Ergodic Hypothesis Via Analogies,” Physicae 10, no. 10 (2013): 9–12; J. L. Lebowitz and O. Penrose, “Modern Ergodic Theory,” Physics Today (1973): 23; Massimiliano Badino, “The Foundational Role of Ergodic Theory,” Foundations of Science 11 (2006): 323–347; A. Patrascioiu, “The Ergodic Hypothesis: A Complicated Problem in Mathematics and Physics,” Los Alamos Science Special Issue (1987): 263–279.
132
Эргодическая теория была доказана математиком Биркхоффом в 1931 году: G. D. Birkhoff, “Proof of the Ergodic Theorem,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 17, no. 12 (1931): 656–660.
133
Peter C. M. Molenaar, “On the Implications of the Classical Ergodic Theorems: Analysis of Developmental Processes Has to Focus on Intra-Individual Variation,” Developmental Psychobiology 50, no. 1 (2007): 60–69. Примечание: эти условия необходимы и достаточны для гауссовских процессов, поэтому мы и рассматриваем их в данный момент. Для более общих процессов этих условий недостаточно. Доказать, что динамическая система эргодична, крайне трудно, и успешно произвести доказательство можно лишь для очень немногих динамических систем.
134
См., например, Bodrova et al., “Nonergodic Dynamics of Force-Free Granular Gases,” arXiv:1501.04173 (2015); Thomas Scheby Kuhlman, The Non-Ergodic Nature of Internal Conversion (Heidelberg: Springer Science & Business Media, 2013); and Sydney Chapman et al., The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). Отметим, что некоторые идеальные процессы будут эргодическими; см., например, K. L. Volkovysskii and Y. G. Sinai, “Ergodic properties of an ideal gas with an infinite number of degrees of freedom,” Functional Analysis and Its Applications, no. 5 (1971): 185–187. Заметим также, что эмпирически доказано: эргодическая теория верна и для процессов диффузии, см. “Ergodic Theorem Passes the Test,” Physics World, October 20, 2011, http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2011/oct/20/ergodic-theorem-passes-the-test.
135
Peter Molenaar, interview, 2014. Also see Peter Molenaar et al., “Consequences of the Ergodic Theorems for Classical Test Theory, Factor Analysis, and the Analysis of Developmental Processes,” in Handbook of Cognitive Aging (Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2008), 90–104.
136
A. Quetelet, Lettres a S. A. R. Le Duc Régnant de Saxe Cobourg et Gotha, sur la théorie des probabilités, appliquée aux sciences morales et politique (Brussels: Hayez, 1846), 136.
137
Peter Molenaar, “A Manifesto on Psychology as Idiographic Science: Bringing the Person Back into Scientific Psychology, This Time Forever,” Measurement 2, no. 4 (2004): 201–218.
138
Molenaar, interview, 2014.
139
Molenaar, interview, 2014.
140
Molenaar, interview, 2014.
141
Molenaar, interview, 2014.
142
Rose et al., “Science of the Individual,” 152–158.
143
Paul Van Geert, “The Contribution of Complex Dynamic Systems to Development,” Child Development Perspectives 5, no. 4 (2011): 273–278.
144
Rose et al., “Science of the Individual,” 152–158.
145
Anatole S. Dekaban, Neurology of Infancy (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1959), 63.
146
M. R. Fiorentino, A Basis for Sensorimotor Development — Normal and Abnormal: The Influence of Primitive, Postural Reflexes on the Development and Distribution of Tone (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1981), 55; R. S. Illingworth, The Development of the Infant and Young Child: Normal and Abnormal, 3rd ed. (London: E. & S. Livingstone, 1966), 88; M. B. McGraw, “Neuromuscular Development of the Human Infant As Exemplified in the Achievement of Erect Locomotion,” Journal of Pediatrics 17 (1940): 747–777; J. H. Menkes, Textbook of Child Neurology (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1980), 249; G. E. Molnar, “Analysis of Motor Disorder in Retarded Infants and Young Children,” American Journal of Mental Deficiency 83 (1978): 213–222; A. Peiper, Cerebral Function in Infancy and Childhood (New York: Consultants Bureau, 1963), 213–215.
147
Подробно о ее работе см. Karen E. Adolph and Beatrix Vereijken, “Esther Thelen (1941–2004),” American Psychologist 60, no. 9 (2005): 1032.
148
E. Thelen and D. M. Fisher, “Newborn Stepping: An Explanation for a ‘Disappearing’ Reflex,” Developmental Psychology 18, no. 5 (1982): 760–775.
149
E. Thelen et al., “The Relationship Between Physical Growth and a Newborn Reflex,” Infant Behavior and Development 7, no. 4 (1984): 479–493.
150
http://www.f22fighter.com/cockpit.htm.
151
Robert Levering and Milton Moskowitz, “2007 100 Best Companies to Work for,” Great Place to Work, http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/01/22/8398125/index.htm.
152
Virginia A. Scott, Google (Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), 61.
153
Steve Lohr, “Big Data, Trying to Build Better Workers,” New York Times, April 20, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/21/technology/big-data-trying-to-build-better-workers.html?src=me&pagewanted=all&_r=1. См. также Eric Schmidt and Jonathan Rosenberg, How Google Works (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2014).
154
George Anders, The Rare Find: How Great Talent Stands Out (New York: Penguin, 2011), 3.
155
Leslie Kwoh, “‘Rank and Yank’ Retains Vocal Fans,” Wall Street Journal January 21, 2012, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203363504577186970064375222.
156
Ashley Goodall, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 17, 2015. См. также Marcus Buckingham and Ashley Goodall, “Reinventing Performance Management,” Harvard Business Review, April 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/04/reinventing-performance-management. Примечание: в настоящее время Гудолл занимает пост вице-президента по вопросам лидерства и интеллектуального наполнения групп в компании Cisco Systems.
157
Kwoh, “ ‘Rank and Yank.’”
158
Обзор системы принудительного ранжирования см. Richard C. Grote, Forced Ranking: Making Performance Management Work (Cambridge: Harvard Business Press, 2005).
159
David Auerbach, “Tales of an Ex-Microsoft Manager: Outgoing CEO Steve Ballmer’s Beloved Employee-Ranking System Made Me Secretive, Cynical and Paranoid,” Slate, August 26, 2013, http://www.slate.com/articles/business/moneybox/2013/08/microsoft_ceo_steve_ballmer_retires_a_firsthand_account_of_the_company_s.html.
160
Kwoh, “ ‘Rank and Yank’ ” and Julie Bort, “This Is Why Some Microsoft Employees Still Fear the Controversial ‘Stack Ranking’ Employee Review System,” Business Insider, August 27, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/microsofts-old-employee-review-system-2014–8.
161
Anders, Rare Find, 3–4. Also see Thomas L. Friedman, “How to Get a Job at Google,” New York Times, February 22, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/23/opinion/sunday/friedman-how-to-get-a-job-at-google.html?_r=0.
162
Todd Carlisle, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 21, 2015.
163
Buckingham and Goodall, “Reinventing Performance Management.”
164
Ashley Goodall, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 17, 2015.
165
Kurt Eichenwald, “Microsoft’s Lost Decade,” Vanity Fair, August 2012, http://www.vanityfair.com/news/business/2012/08/microsoft-lost-mojo-steve-ballmer.
166
Marcus Buckingham, “Trouble with the Curve? Why Microsoft Is Ditching Stack Rankings,” Harvard Business Review, November 19, 2013, https://hbr.org/2013/11/dont-rate-your-employees-on-a-curve/.
167
Francis Galton, Essays in Eugenics (London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 66
168
Более подробное обсуждение одномерного мышления см. Paul Churchill, A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 285–286; and Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1991).
169
Daniels, The “Average Man”?, 3.
170
William F. Moroney and Margaret J. Smith, Empirical Reduction in Potential User Population as the Result of Imposed Multivariate Anthropometric Limits (Pensacola, FL: Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, 1972), NAMRL–1164.
171
David Berri and Martin Schmidt, Stumbling on Wins (Bonus Content Edition) (New York: Pearson Education, 2010), Kindle Edition, chap. 2.
172
David Berri, “The Sacrifice LeBron James’ Teammates Make to Play Alongside Him,” Time, October 16, 2014, http://time.com/3513970/lebron-james-shot-attempts-scoring-totals/; также см. Henry Abbott, “The Robots Are Coming, and They’re Cranky,” ESPN, March 17, 2010, http://espn.go.com/blog/truehoop/post/_/id/14349/the-robots-are-coming-and-theyre-cranky.
173
David Berri, “Bad Decision Making Is a Pattern with the New York Knicks,” Huffington Post, May 14, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-berri/bad-decision-making-is-a-b_7283466.html.
174
Berri and Schmidt, Stumbling on Wins, chap. 2; also see David Berri, “The Sacrifice LeBron James’ Teammates Make to Play Alongside Him,” Time.com, October 16, 2014, http://time.com/3513970/lebron-james-hot-attempts-scoring-totals/.
175
David Friedman, “Pro Basketball’s ‘Five-Tool’ Players,” 20 Second Timeout, March 25, 2009, http://20secondtimeout.blogspot.com/2009/03/pro-basketballs-five-tool-players_25.html.
176
Dean Oliver, Basketball on paper: rules and tools for performance analysis (Potomac Books, 2004), 63–64. Об основополагающих идеях, связанных с построением успешной команды, см. Mike Krzyzewski, The Gold Standard: Building a World-Class Team (New York, Business Plus, 2009).
177
Berri, “Bad Decision Making.”
178
D. Denis, “The Origins of Correlation and Regression: Francis Galton or Auguste Bravais and the Error Theorists,” History and Philosophy of Psychology Bulletin 13 (2001): 36–44.
179
Francis Galton, “Co-relations and Their Measurement, Chiefly from Anthropometric Data,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 45, no. 273–279 (1888): 135–145.
180
С технической точки зрения показатель корреляции может составлять от –1,00 до +1,00, где знак указывает на направление взаимосвязи. Однако поскольку здесь я говорю о выраженности связи, то для ясности ограничился показателями от 0 до 1.
181
“Five Questions About the Dow That You Always Wanted to Ask,” Dow Jones Indexes, February 2012, https://www.djindexes.com/mdsidx/downloads/brochure_info/Five_Questions_Brochure.pdf.
182
William F. Moroney and Margaret J. Smith, Empirical Reduction in Potential User Population as the Result of Imposed Multivariate Anthropometric Limits (Pensacola, FL: U.S. Department of the Navy, 1972), NAMRL-1164. Проанализированные данные взяты из исследования E. C. Gifford, Compilation of Anthropometric Measures on US Naval Pilot (Philadelphia: U.S. Department of the Navy, 1960), NAMC-ACEL–437. О том, какое следствие имеет несоответствие на практике, см. George T. Lodge, Pilot Stature in Relation to Cockpit Size: A Hidden Factor in Navy Jet Aircraft Accidents (Norfolk, VA: Naval Safety Center, 1964).
183
Francis Galton, “Mental Tests and Measurements,” Mind 15, no. 59 (1890): 373–381.
184
Биографические данные см. в работе W. B. Pillsbury, Biographical Memoir of James McKeen Cattell 1860–1944 (Washington, DC: National Academy of the Sciences, 1947); and M. M. Sokal, “Science and James McKeen Cattell, 1894–1945,” Science 209, no. 4452 (1980): 43–52.
185
James McKeen Cattell and Francis Galton, “Mental Tests and Measurements,” Mind 13 (1890): 37–51; and James McKeen Cattell and Livingstone Farrand, “Physical and Mental Measurements of the Students of Columbia University,” Psychological Review 3, no. 6 (1896): 618. Also see Michael M. Sokal, “James McKeen Cattell and Mental Anthropometry: Nineteenth-Century Science and Reform and the Origins of Psychological Testing,” in Psychological Testing and American Society, 1890–1930, ed. Michael Sokal (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
186
Результаты были проанализированы и опубликованы в докторской диссертации ученика Кеттелла Клара Висслера. См. Clark Wissler, “The Correlation of Mental and Physical Tests,” Psychological Review: Monograph Supplements 3, no. 6 (1901): i.
187
Wissler, “Correlation of Mental and Physical Tests,” i
188
Charles Spearman, “ ‘General Intelligence,’ Objectively Determined and Measured,” American Journal of Psychology 15, no. 2 (1904): 201–292.
189
Ознакомиться с великолепным исследованием, которое доказывает не только наличие неоднородности в личности, но и разный уровень неоднородности у людей, можно в работе C. L. Hull, “Variability in Amount of Different Traits Possessed by the Individual,” Journal of Educational Psychology 18, no. 2 (February 1, 1927): 97–106. Более современное исследование: Laurence M. Binder et al., “To Err Is Human: ‘Abnormal’ Neuropsychological Scores and Variability Are Common in Healthy Adults,” Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 24, no. 1 (2009): 31–46.
190
G. C. Cleeton, and Frederick B. Knight, “Validity of Character Judgments Based on External Criteria,” Journal of Applied Psychology 8, no. 2 (1924): 215.
191
Обсуждение исследований Торндайка см. в книге его сына Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, Ten Thousand Careers (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1959). Примечание: любому читателю, знакомому со взглядами Торндайка, покажется странным, что ученому приписали одномерный взгляд на интеллект, в то время как он доказывал, что интеллект многомерное явление (абстрактное, социальное и инженерное мышление), и был одним из самых ярых критиков идей Спирмана. Тем не менее он действительно считал, что способности к учебе зависят от некоего врожденного свойства, которое связано с умением мозга создавать связи.
192
David Wechsler, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale — Fourth Edition (WAIS — IV) (San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson, 2008).
193
Wayne Silverman et al., “Stanford-Binet and WAIS IQ Differences and Their Implications for Adults with Intellectual Disability (aka Mental Retardation),” Intelligence 38, no. 2 (2010): 242–248.
194
Это распространяется на все характеристики, которые мы, как правило, измеряем. См. Hull, “Variability in Amount of Different Traits,” 97–106.
195
Jerome M. Sattler and Joseph J. Ryan, Assessment with the WAIS — IV (La Mesa, CA: Jerome M. Sattler Publisher, 2009). Дополнительно о неотъемлемости такого качества интеллекта, как неоднородность, см. Adam Hampshire et al., “Fractionating Human Intelligence,” Neuron, December 10 (2012): 1–13.
196
Sergio Della Sala et al., “Pattern Span: A Tool for Unwelding Visuo-Spatial Memory,” Neuropsychologia 37, no. 10 (1999): 1189–1199.
197
Jennifer L. Kobrin et al., Validity of the SAT for Predicting First-Year College Grade Point Average (New York: College Board, 2008).
198
Steve Jost, “Linear Correlation,” course document, IT 223, DePaul University, 2010, http://condor.depaul.edu/sjost/it223/documents/correlation.htm.
199
Todd Carlisle, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 21, 2015.
200
Carlisle, interview, 2015.
201
Todd Carlisle, interview, 2015; also see Saul Hansell, “Google Answer to Filling Jobs Is an Algorithm,” New York Times, January 3, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/03/technology/03google.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&; for similar insights about Todd Carlisle’s thinking, approach, and results, see Anders, Rare Find.
202
Carlisle, interview, 2015.
203
Carlisle, interview, 2015. See also Saul Hansell, “Google Answer to Filling Jobs Is an Algorithm,” New York Times, January 3, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/03/technology/03google.html?pagewanted=2&_r=0.
204
Данные о персонале взяты из “Google,” Wikipedia, June 19, 2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google; and “IGN,” Wikipedia, June 13, 2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN. Данные о ежегодном уровне продаж взяты из “Google,” Forbes, http://www.forbes.com/companies/google/; and “j2 Global,” Forbes, http://www.forbes.com/companies/j2-global/), данные по IGN приведены по данным компании-учредителя, j2 Global.
205
E. B. Boyd, “Silicon Valley’s New Hiring Strategy,” Fast Company, October 20, 2011, http://www.fastcompany.com/1784737/silicon-valleys-new-hiring-strategy.
206
http://www.ign.com/code-foo/2015/.
207
Boyd, “Silicon Valley.”
208
Boyd, “Silicon Valley.”
209
“GRE,” ETS, http://www.ets.org/gre.
210
Francis Galton, “Measurement of Character,” reprinted in Fortnightly Review 42 (1884): 180.
211
L. Rowell Huesmann and Laramie D. Taylor, “The Role of Media Violence in Violent Behavior,” Annual Review of Public Health 27 (2006): 393–415. For an overview of the situationist perspective see Lee Ross and Richard E. Nisbett, The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology (London: Pinter & Martin Publishers, 2011).
212
Quetelet, Sur l’homme (1942) 108 (English edition).
213
Stanley Milgram, “Behavioral Study of Obedience,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67, no. 4 (1963): 371.
214
Milgram, “Behavioral Study of Obedience.”
215
Douglas T. Kenrick and David C. Funder, “Profiting from Controversy: Lessons from the Person-Situation Debate,” American Psychologist 43, no. 1 (1988): 23.
216
“Understanding the Personality Test Industry,” Psychometric Success, http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personality-tests-understanding-industry.htm; Lauren Weber, “Today’s Personality Tests Raise the Bar for Job Seekers,” Wall Street Journal, April 14, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/a-personality-test-could-stand-in-the-way-of-your-next-job-1429065001.
217
Drake Baer, “Why the Myers-Briggs Personality Test Is Misleading, Inaccurate, and Unscientific,” Business Insider, June 18, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/myers-briggs-personality-test-is-misleading-2014–6; and Lillian Cunningham, “Myers-Briggs: Does It Pay to Know Your Type?” Washington Post, December 14, 2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-leadership/myers-briggs-does-it-pay-to-know-your-type/2012/12/14/eaed51ae–3fcc–11e2-bca3-aadc9b7e29c5_story.html.
218
Salesforce.com, “How to Use the Enneagram in Hiring Without Using a Candidate’s Enneatype,” The Enneagram in Business, October 25, 2012, http://theenneagraminbusiness.com/organizations/salesforce-com-how-to-use-the-enneagram-in-hiring-without-using-a-candidates-enneatype/.
219
Lawrence W. Barsalou et al., “On the Vices of Nominalization and the Virtues of Contextualizing,” in The Mind in Context, ed. Batja Mesquita et al. (New York: Guilford Press, 2010), 334–360; Susan A. Gelman, The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); David L. Hull, “The Effect of Essentialism on Taxonomy — Two Thousand Years of Stasis (I),” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science (1965): 314–326; and Douglas L. Medin and Andrew Ortony, “Psychological Essentialism,” Similarity and Analogical Reasoning 179 (1989): 195.
220
John Tierney, “Hitting It Off, Thanks to Algorithms of Love,” New York Times, January 29, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/29/science/29tier.html?_r=0; and “28 Dimensions of Compatibility,” http://www.eharmony.com/why/dating-relationship-compatibility/.
221
J. McV. Hunt, “Traditional Personality Theory in Light of Recent Evidence,” American Scientist 53, no. 1 (1965): 80–96. Walter Mischel, “Continuity and Change in Personality,” American Psychologist 24, no. 11 (1969): 1012; and Walter Mischel, Personality and Assessment (New York: Psychology Press, 2013).
222
Erik E. Noftle and Richard W. Robins, “Personality Predictors of Academic Outcomes: Big Five Correlates of GPA and SAT Scores,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93, no. 1 (2007): 116; and Ashley S. Holland and Glenn I. Roisman, “Big Five Personality Traits and Relationship Quality: Self-Reported, Observational, and Physiological Evidence,” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 25, no. 5 (2008): 811–829.
223
“Yuichi Shoda, Ph.D.,” University of Washington Psychology Department Directory, http://www.psych.uw.edu/psych.php?p=358&person_id=2569.
224
Yuichi Shoda, interviewed by Todd Rose, November 19, 2014.
225
Shoda, interview, 2014.
226
“Research,” Wediko Children’s Services, http://www.wediko.org/research.html.
227
Yuichi Shoda et al., “Intraindividual Stability in the Organization and Patterning of Behavior: Incorporating Psychological Situations into the Idiographic Analysis of Personality,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 4 (1994): 674.
228
Shoda et al., “Intraindividual Stability in the Organization and Patterning of Behavior.”
229
Shoda et al., “Intraindividual Stability in the Organization and Patterning of Behavior.”
230
Lisa Feldman Barrett et al., “The Context Principle,” in The Mind in Context, ed. Batja Mesquita, Lisa Feldman Barrett, and Eliot R. Smith (New York: Guildford Press, 2010), chap. 1; Walter Mischel, “Toward an Integrative Science of the Person,” Annual Review of Psychology 55 (2004): 1–22; Yuichi Shoda, Daniel Cervone, and Geraldine Downey, eds., Persons in Context: Building a Science of the Individual (New York: Guilford Press, 2007); and Robert J. Sternberg and Richard K. Wagner, Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
231
Shoda et al., Persons in Context
232
Lara K. Kammrath et al., “Incorporating If … Then … Personality Signatures in Person Perception: Beyond the Person-Situation Dichotomy,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88, no. 4 (2005): 605; Batja Mesquita, Lisa Feldman Barrett, and Eliot R. Smith, eds., The Mind in Context (New York: Guilford Press, 2010); Sternberg and Wagner, Mind in Context; and Donna D. Whitsett and Yuichi Shoda, “An Approach to Test for Individual Differences in the Effects of Situations Without Using Moderator Variables,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 50, no. C (January 1, 2014): 94–104.
233
Биографические данные см. в Raymond P. Morris, “Hugh Hartshorne, “1885–1967,” Religious Education 62, no. 3 (1968): 162.
234
Marvin W. Berkowitz and Melinda C. Bier, “Research-Based Character Education,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 591, no. 1 (2004): 72–85.
235
Hartshorne and May, Studies, Vol. 1: Studies in Deceit, 47–103.
236
Hartshorne and May, Studies, Vol. 1: Studies in Deceit. Also see John M. Doris, Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behavior (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
237
Hartshorne, May, and Shuttleworth, Studies, Vol. III: Studies in the Organization of Character (1930): 291. Примечание: в исходном исследовании участниками были мальчик и девочка, однако я решил изобразить на картинке двух девочек, чтобы в центре обсуждения был не гендер, а свойства личности.
238
Hartshorne, May, and Shuttleworth, Studies, Vol. III: Studies in the Organization of Character, 287.
239
Свежий пример см. в работе Mark Prigg, “Self Control Is the Most Important Skill a Parent Can Teach Their Child, Says Study,” Daily Mail, April 14, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article–3038807/Self-control-important-thing-parent-teach-children-Study-says-major-influence-child-s-life.html.
240
Обзор темы см. в недавно вышедшей книге автора исходного исследования Walter Mischel, The Marshmallow Test (New York: Random House, 2014). For details of the task, see “Delaying Gratification,” in “What You Need to Know about Willpower: The Psychological Science of Self-Control,” American Psychological Association, https://www.apa.org/helpcenter/willpower-gratification.pdf; and “Stanford Marshmallow Experiment,” Wikipedia, June 13, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_marshmallow_experiment.
241
Walter Mischel et al., “The Nature of Adolescent Competencies Predicted by Preschool Delay of Gratification,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, no. 4 (1988): 687; Walter Mischel et al., “Cognitive and Attentional Mechanisms in Delay of Gratification,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21, no. 2 (1972): 204.
242
Yuichi Shoda et al., “Predicting Adolescent Cognitive and Self-Regulatory Competencies from Preschool Delay of Gratification: Identifying Diagnostic Conditions,” Developmental Psychology 26, no. 6 (1990): 978. See also Walter Mischel and Nancy Baker, “Cognitive Appraisals and Transformations in Delay Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 2 (1975): 254; Walter Mischel et al., “Delay of Gratification in Children,” Science 244, no. 4907 (1989): 933–938; Walter Mischel et al., “ ‘Willpower’ over the Life Span: Decomposing Self-Regulation,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (2010); Tanya R. Schlam et al., “Preschoolers’ Delay of Gratification Predicts Their Body Mass 30 Years Later,” Journal of Pediatrics 162, no. 1 (2013): 90–93; and Inge-Marie Eigsti, “Predicting Cognitive Control from Preschool to Late Adolescence and Young Adulthood,” Psychological Science 17, no. 6 (2006): 478–484.
243
B. J. Casey et al., “Behavioral and Neural Correlates of Delay of Gratification 40 Years Later,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 36 (2011): 14998–15003.
244
Louise Eckman, “Behavior Problems: Teaching Young Children Self-Control Skills,” National Mental Health and Education Center, http://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/behavior%20template.pdf.
245
Martin Henley, Teaching Self-Control: A Curriculum for Responsible Behavior (Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service, 2003); and “Self Control,” Character First Education, http://characterfirsteducation.com/c/curriculum-detail/2039081.
246
Обсуждение темы см. в работе Jacoba Urist, “What the Marshmallow Test Really Teaches About Self-Control,” Atlantic, September 24, 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/09/what-the-marshmallow-test-really-teaches-about-self-control/380673/.
247
Shoda, interview, 2014.
248
Дополнительно о работе доктора Кидд см. “Celeste Kidd,” University of Rochester, Brain & Cognitive Sciences, http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/ckidd/.
249
Celeste Kidd, interviewed by Todd Rose, June 12, 2015; see also “The Marshmallow Study Revisited,” University of Rochester, October 11, 2012, http://www.rochester.edu/news/show.php?id=4622.
250
Kidd et al., “Rational Snacking: Young Children’s Decision-Making on the Marshmallow Task Is Moderated by Beliefs About Environmental Reliability,” Cognition 126, no. 1 (2013): 109–114.
251
Kidd et al., “Rational Snacking.”
252
“What We Do,” Adler Group, http://louadlergroup.com/about-us/what-we-do/.
253
Lou Adler, interviewed by Todd Rose, March 27, 2015.
254
Adler, interview, 2015; for an overview of Performance-Based Hiring, see Lou Adler, Hire with Your Head: Using Performance-Based Hiring to Build Great Teams (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
255
Adler, interview, 2015.
256
Adler, interview, 2015.
257
Dr. Matthew Partridge, “Callum Negus-Fancey: ‘Put People and Talent First,’” MoneyWeek, January 22, 2015, http://moneyweek.com/profile-of-entrepreneur-callum-negus-fancey/.
258
Callum Negus-Fancey, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 3, 2015.
259
Negus-Fancey, interview, 2015.
260
Negus-Fancey, interview, 2015.
261
Adler, interview, 2015.
262
Arnold Gesell, “Developmental Schedules,” in The Mental Growth of the Pre-School Child: A Psychological Outline of Normal Development from Birth to the Sixth Year, Including a System of Developmental Diagnosis (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1925).
263
Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (Cambridge: MIT Press Books, 2005).
264
Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
265
E. Thelen and K. E. Adolph, “Arnold L. Gesell: The Paradox of Nature and Nurture,” Developmental Psychology 28, no. 3 (1992): 368–380; Laura Sices, “Use of Developmental Milestones in Pediatric Residency Training and Practice: Time to Rethink the Meaning of the Mean,” Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 28, no. 1 (2007): 47; K. E. Adolph and S. R. Robinson, “The Road to Walking: What Learning to Walk Tells Us About Development,” in Oxford Handbook of Developmental Psychology, ed. P. Zelazo (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); and “Child Growth Standards: Motor Development Milestones,” World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/motor_milestones/en/.
266
Дополнительную информацию о докторе Карен Адольф и ее работе можно найти на сайте ее лаборатории: http://psych.nyu.edu/adolph/.
267
Karen E. Adolph et al., “Learning to Crawl,” Child Development 69, no. 5 (1998): 1299–1312.
268
Adolph et al., “Learning to Crawl.”
269
Adolph et al., “Learning to Crawl.”
270
Karen Adolph, interviewed by Todd Rose, June 13, 2015.
271
“Discovery: Will Baby Crawl?” National Science Foundation, July 21, 2004, https://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103153.
272
Kate Gammon, “Crawling: A New Evolutionary Trick?” Popular Science, November 1, 2013, http://www.popsci.com/blog-network/kinderlab/crawling-new-evolutionary-trick.
273
“David Tracer, Ph.D.” University of Colorado Denver Fulbright Scholar Recipients, http://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/InternationalPrograms/oia/fulbright/recipients/davidtracer/Pages/default.aspx; Kate Wong, “Hitching a Ride,” Scientific American 301, no. 1 (2009): 20–23; “Discovery: Will Baby Crawl?”.
274
“What Are the Key Statistics About Colorectal Cancer?” American Cancer Society, http://www.cancer.org/cancer/colonandrectumcancer/detailedguide/colorectal-cancer-key-statistics.
275
Eric R. Fearon and Bert Vogelstein, “A Genetic Model for Colorectal Tumorigenesis,” Cell 61, no. 5 (1990): 759–767.
276
Gillian Smith et al., “Mutations in APC, Kirsten-ras, and p53—Alternative Genetic Pathways to Colorectal Cancer,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99, no. 14 (2002): 9433–9438; Massimo Pancione et al., “Genetic and Epigenetic Events Generate Multiple Pathways in Colorectal Cancer Progression,” Pathology Research International 2012 (2012); Sylviane Olschwang et al., “Alternative Genetic Pathways in Colorectal Carcinogenesis,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94, no. 22 (1997): 12122–12127; and Yu-Wei Cheng et al., “CpG Island Methylator Phenotype Associates with Low-Degree Chromosomal Abnormalities in Colorectal Cancer,” Clinical Cancer Research 14, no. 19 (2008): 6005–6013.
277
Daniel L. Worthley and Barbara A. Leggett, “Colorectal Cancer: Molecular Features and Clinical Opportunities,” Clinical Biochemist Reviews 31, no. 2 (2010): 31.
278
Kenneth I. Howard et al., “The Dose — Effect Relationship in Psychotherapy,” American Psychologist 41, no. 2 (1986): 159; Wolfgang Lutz et al., “Outcomes Management, Expected Treatment Response, and Severity-Adjusted Provider Profiling in Outpatient Psychotherapy,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 58, no. 10 (2002): 1291–1304.
279
Jeffrey R. Vittengl et al., “Nomothetic and Idiographic Symptom Change Trajectories in Acute-Phase Cognitive Therapy for Recurrent Depression,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 81, no. 4 (2013): 615.
280
Три работы, посвященные вопросу эквифинальности: о развитии см. Dante Cicchetti and Fred A. Rogosch, “Equifinality and Multifinality in Developmental Psychopathology,” Development and Psychopathology 8, no. 04 (1996): 597–600; о развитии лидерства см. Marguerite Schneider and Mark Somers, “Organizations as Complex Adaptive Systems: Implications of Complexity Theory for Leadership Research,” Leadership Quarterly 17, no. 4 (2006): 351–365; о гидрологии см. Keith Beven, “A Manifesto for the Equifinality Thesis,” Journal of Hydrology 320, no. 1 (2006): 18–36.
281
Kurt W. Fischer and Thomas R. Bidell, “Dynamic Development of Action and Thought,” in Handbook of Child Psychology (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2006); and Kathleen M. Eisenhardt and Jeffrey A. Martin, “Dynamic Capabilities: What Are They?” Strategic Management Journal 21, no. 10–11 (2000): 1105–1121.
282
Edward L. Thorndike, “Memory for Paired Associates,” Psychological Review 15, no. 2 (1908): 122.
283
Edward L. Thorndike, The Human Nature Club: An Introduction to the Study of Mental Life (New York: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1901), chap. 1.
284
Edward L. Thorndike, “Measurement in Education,” The Teachers College Record 22, no. 5 (1921): 371–379; and Linda Mabry, “Writing to the Rubric: Lingering Effects of Traditional Standardized Testing on Direct Writing Assessment,” Phi Delta Kappan 80, no. 9 (1999): 673.
285
Raiann Rahman, “The Almost Standardized Aptitude Test: Why Extra Time Shouldn’t Be an Option on Standardized Testing,” Point of View, October 18, 2013, http://www.bbnpov.com/?p=1250.
286
Сведения о биографии и взглядах Бенджамина Блума, а также о его карьере см. в работе Thomas R. Guskey, Benjamin S. Bloom: Portraits of an Educator (Lanham, MD: R&L Education, 2012); and Elliot W. Eisner, “Benjamin Bloom,” Prospects 30, no. 3 (2000): 387–395.
287
Benjamin S. Bloom, “Time and Learning,” American Psychologist 29, no. 9 (1974): 682; and Benjamin S. Bloom, Human Characteristics and School Learning (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976).
288
Идеи по праву принадлежат Блуму, однако следует отметить, что упомянутые важнейшие исследования выполнялись двумя его аспирантами: Джоанной Анания (Joanne Anania, “The Influence of Instructional Conditions on Student Learning and Achievement,” Evaluation in Education 7, no. 1 [1983]: 1–92) и Артуром Берком (Arthur Joseph Burke, “Students’ Potential for Learning Contrasted Under Tutorial and Group Approaches to Instruction” [Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1983]).
289
В данных исследованиях рассматривается дополнительное условие эксперимента — групповое овладение материалом, однако к нашей теме оно отношения не имеет.
290
Benjamin S. Bloom, “The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring,” Educational Researcher (1984): 4–16.
291
Chen-Lin C. Kulik et al., “Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Programs: A Meta-Analysis,” Review of Educational Research 60, no. 2 (1990): 265–299.
292
Bloom, “2 Sigma Problem,” 4–16.
293
Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/; and “Khan Academy,” Wikipedia, June 3, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Academy.
294
Anya Kamenetz, “A Q&A with Salman Khan, Founder of Khan Academy,” Fast Company, November 21, 2013, http://live.fastcompany.com/Event/A_QA_With_Salman_Khan.
295
“A Personalized Learning Resource for All Ages,” Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/about.
296
“Salman Khan,” TED, https://www.ted.com/speakers/salman_khan.
297
“Khan,” TED.
298
Arnold Gesell, “Arnold Gesell,” Psychiatric Research Reports 13 (1960): 1–9.
299
Arnold Gesell and Catherine Strunk Amatruda, The Embryology of Behavior: The Beginnings of the Human Mind (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1945); Arnold Gesell, The Ontogenesis of Infant Behavior (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1954); Gesell, Mental Growth of the Pre-School Child; Arnold Gesell, Infancy and Human Growth (New York: MacMillan, 1928); Arnold Gesell and Helen Thompson, Infant Behavior: Its Genesis and Growth (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1934); Arnold Gesell, How a Baby Grows (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1945); Thomas C. Dalton, “Arnold Gesell and the Maturation Controversy,” Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science 40, no. 4 (2005): 182–204; and Fredric Weizmann and Ben Harris, “Arnold Gesell: The Maturationist,” in Portraits of Pioneers in Developmental Psychology 7 (New York: Psychology Press, 2012).
300
Gesell, “Developmental Schedules;” and Gesell and Thompson, “Infant Behavior.”
301
Gesell, “Developmental Schedules,” as cited in Adolph et al., “Learning to Crawl.” See also Adolph, Karen E., and Sarah E. Berger, “Motor Development,” Handbook of Child Psychology (2006).
302
Gesell and Thompson, Infant Behavior: Its Genesis and Growth, chap. 3.
303
Weizmann and Harris, “Gesell: The Maturationist,” 1.
304
Gesell and Amatruda, Developmental Diagnosis (New York: Harper, 1947).
305
Gesell and Amatruda, Developmental Diagnosis, 361.
306
Arnold Gesell, “Reducing the Risks of Child Adoption,” Child Welfare League of America Bulletin 6, no. 3 (1927); and Ellen Herman, “Families Made by Science: Arnold Gesell and the Technologies of Modern Child Adoption,” Isis (2001): 684–715.
307
Thelen and Adolph, “Gesell: Paradox of Nature and Nurture,” 368–380.
308
Arlene Eisenberg et al., What to Expect When You’re Expecting (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996); and Heidi Murkoff et al., What to Expect the First Year (New York: Workman Publishing, 2009).
309
Thomas R. Bidell and Kurt W. Fischer, “Beyond the Stage Debate: Action, Structure, and Variability in Piagetian Theory and Research,” Intellectual Development (1992): 100–140.
310
Rose et al., “The Science of the Individual,” 152–158; L. Todd Rose and Kurt W. Fischer, “Dynamic Development: A Neo-Piagetian Approach,” in The Cambridge Companion to Piaget (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009): 400; L. Todd Rose and Kurt W. Fischer, “Intelligence in Childhood,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011): 144–173.
311
“Kurt W. Fischer,” Wikipedia, May 17, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_W._Fischer.
312
Обзор его работы см. у Kurt W. Fischer and Thomas R. Bidell, “Dynamic Development of Action and Thought,” in Handbook of Child Psychology, 6th ed. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006).
313
Catharine C. Knight and Kurt W. Fischer, “Learning to Read Words: Individual Differences in Developmental Sequences,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 13, no. 3 (1992): 377–404.
314
Kurt Fischer, interviewed by Todd Rose, August 14, 2014.
315
Knight and Fischer, “Learning to Read Words.”
316
Knight and Fischer, “Learning to Read Words.”
317
Fischer, interview, 2014.
318
Tania Rabesandratana, “Waltz to Excellence,” Science, August 7, 2014, http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_magazine/previous_issues/articles/2014_08_07/caredit.a1400200.
319
Rabesandratana, “Waltz to Excellence.”
320
Постдок — стипендия для молодых научных работников, недавно получивших докторскую степень, для стажировки на протяжении 1–2, а иногда и 3 лет в университете, отличном от того, в котором они получили степень. Прим. ред.
321
Rabesandratana, “Waltz to Excellence.”
322
Rabesandratana, “Waltz to Excellence.”
323
“Characteristics of Remedial Students,” Colorado Community College System, http://highered.colorado.gov/Publications/General/StrategicPlanning/Meetings/Resources/Pipeline/Pipeline_100317_Remedial_Handout.pdf; and “Beyond the Rhetoric: Improving College Readi-ness Through Coherent State Policy,” http://www.highereducation.org/reports/college_readiness/gap.shtml.
324
CLEP (College Level Examination Program), https://clep.collegeboard.org/.
325
Victor Lipman, “Surprising, Disturbing Facts from the Mother of All Employment Engagement Surveys,” Forbes, September 23, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/victorlipman/2013/09/23/surprising-disturbing-facts-from-the-mother-of-all-employee-engagement-surveys/.
326
“Glassdoor’s Employee’s Choice Awards 2015: Best Places to Work 2015,” Glassdoor, http://www.glassdoor.com/Best-Places-to-Work-LST_KQ0,19.htm; Rich Duprey, “6 Reasons Costco Wholesale Is the Best Retailer to Work For,” The Motley Fool, December 13, 2014, http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2014/12/13/6-reasons-costco-wholesale-is-the-best-retailer-to.aspx; and “Top Companies for Compensation & Benefits 2014,” Glassdoor, http://www.glassdoor.com/Top-Companies-or-Compensation-and-Benefits-LST_KQ0,43.htm.
327
Duprey, “6 Reasons.”
328
Jim Sinegal, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 8, 2015.
329
Duprey, “6 Reasons”; “Jim Sinegal on Costco’s ‘Promote from Within’ Strategy and Why It Needs to Think Like a Small Company,” The Motley Fool, June 21, 2012, http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2012/06/21/jim-sinegal-on-costcos-promote-from-within-strateg.aspx.
330
Annette Alvarez-Peters, interviewed by Todd Rose (e-mail), May 5, 2015. Note: Alvarez-Peters started out at Price Club, which merged with Costco in 1993.
331
“Annette Alvarez-Peters,” Taste Washington, http://tastewashington.org/annette-alvarez-peters/.
332
“The Decanter Power List 2013,” Decanter, July 2, 2013, http://www.decanter.com/wine-pictures/the-decanter-power-list-2013-14237/.
333
Sinegal, interview, 2015.
334
Christ Horst, “An Open Letter to the President and CEO of Costco,” Smorgasblurb, August 4, 2010, http://www.smorgasblurb.com/2010/08/an-open-letter-to-costco-executives/.
335
Sinegal, interview, 2015.
336
Adam Levine-Weinberg, “Why Costco Stock Keeps Rising,” The Motley Fool, May 21, 2013, http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2013/05/21/why-costco-stock-keeps-rising.aspx.
337
Andres Cardenal, “Costco vs. Wal-Mart: Higher Wages Mean Superior Returns for Investors,” The Motley Fool, March 12, 2014, http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2014/03/12/costco-vs-wal-mart-higher-wages-mean-superior-retu.aspx.
338
Duprey, “6 Reasons;” and Jeff Stone, “Top 10 US Retailers: Amazon Joins Ranks of Walmart, Kroger for First Time Ever,” International Business Times, July 3, 2014, http://www.ibtimes.com/top-10-us-retailers-amazon-joins-ranks-walmart-kroger-first-time-ever-1618774.
339
http://www.businessinsider.com/why-wal-marts-pay-is-lower-than-costco-2014-10.
340
Sinegal, interview, 2015. See also, Megan McArdle, “Why Wal-Mart Will Never Pay Like Costco,” Bloomberg View, August 27, 2013, http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2013-08-27/why-walmart-will-never-pay-like-costco.
341
Aaron Taube, “Why Costco Pays Its Retail Employees $20 an Hour,” Business Insider, October 23, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/costco-pays-retail-employees-20-an-Hour-2014-10; Mitch Edelman, “Wal-Mart Could Learn from Ford, Costco,” Carroll County Times, July 19, 2013, http://www.carrollcountytimes.com/cct-arc-67d6db6e-db9f-5bc4-83c3-c51ac7a66792-20130719-story.html.
342
Wayne F. Cascio, “The High Cost of Low Wages,” Harvard Business Review, December 2006 issue, https://hbr.org/2006/12/the-high-cost-of-low-wages; for more information on this strategy, see Zeynep Ton, “Why ‘Good Jobs’ Are Good for Retailers,” Harvard Business Review, January — February 2012, https://hbr.org/2012/01/why-good-jobs-are-good-for-retailers/?conversationId=3301855.
343
Sinegal, interview, 2015.
344
Sinegal, interview, 2015.
345
Saritha Rai, “The Fifth Metro: Doing IT Differently,” The Indian Express, November 24, 2014, http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-fifth-metro-doing-it-differently/.
346
Zoho, https://www.zoho.com/; see also “Sridhar Vembu,” Wikipedia, April 17, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sridhar_Vembu.
347
Zoho, https://www.zoho.com/.
348
Mark Milian, “No VC: Zoho CEO ‘Couldn’t Care Less for Wall Street’,” Bloomberg, November 29, 2012, http://go.bloomberg.com/tech-deals/2012-11-29-no-vc-zoho-ceo-couldnt-care-less-for-wall-street/; Rasheeda Bhagat, “A Life Worth Living,” Rotary News, October 1, 2014.
349
Sridhar Vembu, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 21, 2015; see also: Rasheeda Bhagat, “Decoding Zoho’s Success,” The Hindu Business Line, February 4, 2013, http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/columns/rasheeda-bhagat/decoding-zohos-success/article4379158.ece.
350
Vembu, interview, 2015.
351
Vembu, interview, 2015.
352
Vembu, interview, 2015; for similar sentiments, see Sridar, “How We Recruit — On Formal Credentials vs. Experience-based Education,” Zoho Blogs, June 12, 2008, http://blogs.zoho.com/2008/06/page/2.
353
Zoho University, http://www.zohouniversity.com/; Bhagat, “A Life Worth Living.”
354
Vembu, interview, 2015.
355
Vembu, interview, 2015.
356
Vembu, interview, 2015. See also “Zoho University Celebrates a Decade of Success,” https://www.zoho.com/news/zoho-university-celebrates-decade-success.html; Leslie D’Monte, “Challenging Conventional Wisdom with Zoho University,” Live Mint, November 21, 2014, http://www.livemint.com/Companies/LU4qIlz47C5Uph2P5i250K/Challenging-conventional-wisdom-with-Zoho-University.html.
357
Krithika Krishnamurthy, “Zoho-Run Varsity Among Its Largest Workforce Providers,” Economic Times, March 14, 2014, http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015–03–14/news/60111683_1_students-csir-iisc.
358
Vembu, interview, 2015; D’Monte, “Challenging Conventional Wisdom.”
359
Vembu, interview, 2015.
360
Vembu, interview, 2015.
361
Vembu, interview, 2015.
362
Vembu, interview, 2015.
363
Vembu, interview, 2015.
364
“About Us: Company History,” The Morning Star Company, http://morningstarco.com/index.cgi?Page=About%20Us/Company%20History.
365
See “About Us: Company History”; Frédéric Laloux, Reinventing Organizations: A Guide to Creating Organizations Inspired by the Next Stage of Human Consciousness (Brussels: Nelson Parker, 2014) (Издана на русском языке: Лалу Ф. Открывая организации будущего. М.: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2016.), 112; and “Chris Rufer,” http://www.self-managementinstitute.org/about/people/1435.
366
See Allen, “Passion for Tomatoes,” “About Us: Company History.”
367
Laloux, Reinventing Organizations, 112; Goldsmith, “Morning Star Has No Management.
368
Paul Green Jr., interviewed by Todd Rose, July 28, 2014.
369
“About Us: Colleague Principles,” The Morning Star Company, http://morningstarco.com/index.cgi?Page=About%20Us/Colleague%20Principles.
370
Gary Hamel, “First, Let’s Fire All the Managers,” Harvard Business Review, December 2011, https://hbr.org/2011/12/first-lets-fire-all-the-managers.
371
Green, interview, 2014.
372
Green, interview, 2014.
373
Green, interview, 2014.
374
Green, interview, 2014.
375
Green, interview, 2014.
376
Green, interview, 2014.
377
Sinegal, interview, 2015.
378
Vembu, interview, 2015.
379
Обзор проблем и перспектив см. в работе Michelle R. Weise and Clayton M. Christensen, Hire Education: Mastery, Modularization, and the Workforce Revolution (Clayton Christensen Institute, 2014), http://www.christenseninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Hire-Education.pdf.
380
Casey Phillips, “A Matter of Degree: Many College Grads Never Work in Their Major,” TimesFreePress.com, November 16, 2014, http://www.timesfreepress.com/news/life/entertainment/story/2014/nov/16/matter-degree-many-college-grads-never-work-/273665/.
381
James Bessen, “Employers Aren’t Just Whining — The ‘Skills Gap’ Is Real,” Harvard Business Review, August 25, 2014, https://hbr.org/2014/08/employers-arent-just-whining-the-skills-gap-is-real; Stephen Moore, “Why Is It So Hard for Employers to Fill These Jobs?” CNSNews.com, August 25, 2014, http://cnsnews.com/commentary/stephen-moore/why-it-so-hard-employers-fill-these-jobs.
382
Jeffrey J. Selingo, “Why Are So Many College Students Failing to Gain Job Skills Before Graduation?” Washington Post, January 26, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2015/01/26/why-are-so-any-college-students-failing-to-gain-job-skills-before-graduation/; Eduardo Porter, “Stubborn Skills Gap in America’s Work Force,” New York Times, October 8, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/business/economy/stubborn-skills-gap-in-americas-work-force.html; and Catherine Rampell, “An Odd Shift in an Unemployment Curve,” New York Times, May 7, 2013, http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/07/an-odd-shift-in-an-unemployment-curve/.
383
Michelle Jamrisko and Ilan Kolet, “College Costs Surge 500 % in U.S. Since 1985: Chart of the Day,” Bloomberg Business, August 26, 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013–08–26/college-costs-surge-500-in-u-s-since-1985-chart-of-the-day.
384
Jamrisko and Kolet, “College Costs Surge 500 % in U.S. Since 1985.”
385
“Making College Cost Less,” The Economist, April 5, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21600120-many-american-universities-offer-lousy-value-money-government-can-help-change; “Understanding the Rising Costs of Higher Education,” Best Value Schools, http://www.bestvalueschools.com/understanding-the-rising-costs-of-higher-education/.
386
Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
387
Judy Muir, interviewed by Todd Rose, October 28, 2014. For more information about Muir’s approach to college admissions, see Judith Muir and Katrin Lau, Finding Your U: Navigating the College Admissions Process (Houston: Bright Sky Press, 2015).
388
Muir, interview, 2014.
389
Bill Fitzsimmons, interviewed by Todd Rose, August 4, 2014.
390
Elena Silva, “The Carnegie Unit — Revisited,” Carnegie Foundation, May 28, 2013, http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/blog/the-carnegie-unit-revisited/.
391
Более подробную критику дипломной системы см. в работе Charles A. Murray, “Reforms for the New Upper Class,” New York Times, March 7, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/opinion/reforms-for-the-new-upper-class.html.
392
“Micro-Credentialing,” Educause, http://www.educause.edu/library/micro-credentialing; and Laura Vanderkam, “Micro-credentials,” Laura Vanderkam, December 12, 2012, http://lauravanderkam.com/2012/12/micro-credentials/.
393
Gabriel Kahn, “The iTunes of Higher Education,” Slate, September 19, 2013, http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/education/2013/09/edx_mit_and_online_certificates_how_non_degree_certificates_are_disrupting.html; https://www.edx.org/press/mitx-introduces-xseries-course-sequence; Nick Anderson, “Online College Courses to Grant Credentials, for a Fee,” Washington Post, January 9, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/online-college-courses-to-grant-credentials-for-a-fee/2013/01/08/ffc0f5ce-5910-11e2-88d0-c4cf65c3ad15_story.html; Nick Anderson, “MOOCS — Here Come the Credentials,” Washington Post, January 9, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/college-inc/post/moocs-here-come-the-credentials/2013/01/09/a1db85a2–5a67–11e2–88d0-c4cf65c3ad15_blog.html.
394
Maurice A. Jones, “Credentials, Not Diplomas, Are What Count for Many Job Openings,” New York Times, March 19, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/03/19/who-should-pay-for-workers-training/credentials-not-diplomas-are-what-count-for-many-job-openings; for more on national credential initiative, see “President Obama and Skills for America’s Future Partners Announce Initiatives Critical to Improving Manufacturing Workforce,” The White House, June 8, 2011, https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/06/08/president-obama-and-skills-americas-future-partners-announce-initiatives.
395
Jones, “Credentials, Not Diplomas.”
396
http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/education/2013/09/edx_mit_and_online_certificates_how_non_degree_certificates_are_disrupting.html.
397
Thomas R. Guskey, “Five Obstacles to Grading Reform,” Educational Leadership 69, no. 3 (2011): 16–21.
398
Western Governors University, http://www.wgu.edu/.
399
“Competency-Based Approach,” Western Governors University, http://www.wgu.edu/why_WGU/competency_based_approach?utm_source=10951; John Gravois, “The College For-Profits Should Fear,” Washington Monthly, September/October 2011, http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/magazine/septemberoctober_2011/features/the_college_forprofits_should031640.php?page=all; “WGU Named ‘Best Value School’ by University Research & Review for Second Consecutive Year,” PR Newswire, April 9, 2015, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/wgu-named-best-value-school-by-university-research-review-for-second-consecutive-year-300063690.html; Tara Garcia Mathewson, “Western Governors University Takes Hold in Online Ed,” Education DIVE, March 31, 2015, http://www.educationdive.com/news/western-governors-university-takes-hold-in-online-ed/381283/.
400
George Lorenzo, “Western Governors University: How Competency-Based Distance Education Has Come of Age,” Educational Pathways 6, no. 7 (2007): 1–4, http://www.wgu.edu/about_WGU/ed_pathways_707_article.pdf; Matt Krupnick, “As a Whole New Kind of College Emerges, Critics Fret Over Standards,” Hechinger Report, February 24, 2015, http://hechingerreport.org/whole-new-kind-college-emerges-critics-fret-standards/.
401
Krupnick, “As a Whole New Kind of College Emerges;” and “Overview,” Competency-Based Education Network, http://www.cbenetwork.org/about/
402
EdX and Arizona State University Reimagine First Year of College, Offer Alternative Entry Into Higher Education,” April 22, 2015, https://www.edx.org/press/edx-arizona-state-university-reimagine; John A. Byrne, “Arizona State, edX to offer entire freshman year of college online,” Fortune, April 22, 2015, http://fortune.com/2015/04/22/arizona-state-edx-moocs-online-education/. For more on ASU, see Jon Marcus, “Is Arizona State University the Model for the New American University?” Hechinger Report, March 11, 2015, http://hechingerreport.org/is-arizona-state-university-the-model-for-the-new-american-university/.
403
Дополнительную информацию о самолете A-10 Warthog см. “Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II,” Wikipedia, June 29, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II.
404
Lt. Kim C. Campbell, interviewed by Todd Rose, April 8, 2015.
405
Campbell, interview, 2015.
406
Campbell, interview, 2015.
407
Campbell, interview, 2015.
408
Campbell, interview, 2015.
409
“Kim Campbell,” Badass of the Week, April 7, 2003, http://www.badassoftheweek.com/kimcampbell.html.
410
“Kim N. Campbell,” Military Times, http://valor.militarytimes.com/recipient.php?recipientid=42653.
411
Campbell, interview, 2015.
412
Campbell, interview, 2015.
413
Campbell, interview, 2015.
414
Обзор концепции равных возможностей см. в статье “Equal Opportunity,” Wikipedia, June 24, 2015, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_opportunity.
415
Идея равного доступа сыграла крайне важную роль в борьбе за права представителей разных рас (см. “School Desegregation and Equal Education Opportunity,” Civil Rights 101, http://www.civilrights.org/resources/civilrights101/desegregation.html?referrer=https://www.google.com/, and “The Civil Rights Movement (1954–1965): An Overview,” The Social Welfare History Project, http://www.socialwelfarehistory.com/eras/civil-rights-movement/); представителей разного пола (см. Bonnie Eisenberg and Mary Ruthsdotter, “History of the Women’s Rights Movement,” National Women’s History Project, 1998, http://www.nwhp.org/resources/womens-rights-movement/history-of-the-womens-rights-movement/); возможностей (“A Brief History of the Disability Rights Movement,” The Anti-Defamation League, 2005, http://archive.adl.org/education/curriculum_connections/fall_2005/fall_2005_lesson5_history.html.
416
Здесь крайне важно отметить, что концепция равного доступа по-прежнему важна и заслуживает защиты. Взять хотя бы тот факт, что в 2005 году (спустя два года после героического полета Киллер Цыпы) в Конгрессе была предпринята попытка отстранить женщин от участия в военных действиях (“Letters to the Editor for Friday, May 27, 2005,” Stars and Stripes, May 27, 2005, http://www.stripes.com/opinion/letters-to-the-editor-for-friday-may-27-2005-1.35029).
417
Abraham Lincoln, “Message to Congress,” July 4, 1861, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 4 (Rutgers University Press, 1953, 1990): 438.
418
Дополнительно о тестах, основанных на нормативах, см. “Norm-Referenced Achievement Tests,” FairTest, August 17, 2007, http://www.fairtest.org/facts/nratests.htm.
419
James Truslow Adams, The Epic of America (New York: Blue Ribbon, 1931), 214–215.
420
Adams, “Epic of America,” 180.